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Embark on a captivating journey through the annals of history with "The History of Finnish Americans." This meticulously researched book, published in Finnish in 1919 and now translated into English, delves into the lives of Finnish immigrants who, during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, forged their destinies in North America. Explore their pivotal roles as seamen and ship captains, navigating the treacherous waters of early American maritime trade. Uncover their daring pursuits during the gold rush and their integral contributions to the American Civil War.

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The design of an antenna system involves deciding how much antenna gain is needed and specifying amplifiers and receivers for a specific signal-to-noise ratio. For a given power density, the gain of the antenna determines the power into the receiver. Our job is to choose the antenna gain for acceptable performance. If the antenna gain is too little, then the signal will be noisy. If it is too large, the signal will be distorted due to saturation of the receiver.

When you listen to a radio and the signal is weak you hear noise. This audio noise is caused by electromagnetic noise from the random fluctuation of electrons. Some of this noise comes from outside the antenna system (external noise) and some from inside the receiving system (internal noise). The quality of the received signal depends on the ratio of signal power to noise power, called signal-to-noise ratio, or SNR.

In this tutorial we will learn how to calculate compression points, SNR, sensitivity, and minimum discernible signal levels. This will enable us to predict receiving system performance and ultimately design the system for maximum sensitivity.

In a communications link, if the signal is too noisy we could increase the transmitter power, the transmit or receive antenna gains, or decrease the noise added by the receive system. In other words, the signal-to-noise ratio out of the receiver can be improved by increasing the signal power at the input to the receiver or by decreasing the noise added by the receive system. First we will learn how to quantify the noise added by the system and then how to calculate the signal-to-noise ratio.

In the diagram above, for a given power density, the gain of the receive antenna determines the signal power into the receiver. We need to choose the receive antenna gain for acceptable performance. If the gain is too little, then the signal will be noisy. If it is too large, the signal will be distorted due to saturation of the receiver.

Definition: Amplifier gain is the ratio of the component's or system's signal output power to its signal input power.

G[dB] = 10log(S_o / S_i) = S_o[dBm] - S_i[dBm]

Compression Point

The 1dB compression point tells us the largest signal the receiver, amplifier, or system can handle without significant distortion. The 1 dB compression point refers to the input or output that results in 1dB of gain compression. This compression causes saturation distortion.

Example: An amplifier, whose input and output power are shown in the diagram below, normally has 30 dB of gain. When it is at the 1 dB compression point it only has 29 dB of gain and its output is distorted.

The compression point can be referenced to the input or the output. For receivers or systems, the maximum output is usually specified. The variables CP_i and CP_o will be used to refer to input and output referenced compression points, respectively. In the previous example

CP_i = -30 dBm
CP_o = -1 dBm

Example: What is the input compression point for this amplifier?

Solution: 19 dB is the amplifier gain when it is in 1 dB of gain compression and therefore

CP_i = CP_o[dBm] - 19dB = -14dBm

An antenna system has a receiver, transmission line, and usually one or more amplifiers. The receiver and amplifiers all have their separate compression points. Only the compression point of one of the components will end up being the determining factor for the compression point of the system.

Example: What is the system 1 dB compression point (referenced to the input) for the antenna system shown below?

Solution: In this case, as the power level into the system is increased the first component to go into compression is the receiver. The input, when the receiver is at its 1 dB compression point, is

P_i = 0dBm - 20dB = -20dBm

Therefore the system compression point (referenced to its input) is -20 dBm.

Example: What is the system 1 dB compression point (referenced to the input) for the antenna system shown below?

Solution: This time the transmission line has 8 dB of attenuation. We need to determine which component saturates first, the amplifier or the receiver. When the amplifier output is at its compression point of 5 dBm, the receiver input is 8 dB less, or -3 dBm. So the preamp compresses before the receiver and the system 1 dB compression point (referenced to the input) is

CP_i = 5dBm - 19dB = -14dBm

Noise Figure

We first studied compression points in order to determine the maximum signal that a receiving system can handle. Next we examine noise in order to understand the minimum signal power that a system can detect. The noise produced by something is generally proportional to its absolute temperature. Absolute temperature is measured in units of Kelvin. Converting between Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit is through the following formulas:

^oK = 273 + ^oC
^oC = (^oF - 32)(5 / 9)

The noise delivered from a resistor to a matched load is equal to:

N_i = kTB

where N_i is in watts, T is the temperature of the resistor in Kelvin, B is the bandwidth in Hertz, and k=1.38x10^-23 is Boltzman's constant.

Exercise: What is the noise power delivered to this receiver?

Definition: The noise temperature of an antenna is the temperature T_a, such that the noise coming out of the terminals of the antenna is kT_aB. The antenna noise temperature is a function of the temperature of the matter in the direction the antenna is pointed in, its antenna pattern, the frequency, and the radiation efficiency of the antenna.

At microwave frequencies, for antennas whose takeoff angle is approximately zero degrees elevation, the half of the antenna's field of view includes the earth and the other half the sky. The temperature of the earth is about 290 Kelvin, but it only occupies half of the beamwidth. The result is that the antenna noise temperature T_a is approximately 150K. Earth station antennas see lower temperatures because they look up into the cold sky. HF antennas have a high antenna noise temperature due to HF atmospheric noise generated mostly by lightning storms around the world.

Definition: The noise figure is a way of describing the amount of noise generated in a receiver, amp, transmission line, antenna system, or other component. The noise figure of a component or system is defined as the signal-to-noise ratio at the input divided by the signal-to-noise ratio at the output, with the input noise equal to the noise available from a matched resistance at a temperature of T₀=290 Kelvin.

F = (S_i / N_i)/(S_o / N_o)       where       N_i = kT₀B
F[dB] = 10logF

The term noise factor is often used to describe the linear form of noise figure. In other words the ratio of input to output SNR is described as the noise factor and noise figure is the noise factor measured in dB.

The higher the noise figure (or noise temperature) of a component or system, the more noise it adds to the signal. For this reason, it is desirable to have low noise figure (or noise temperature) components and systems. Noise figures (or noise temperatures) of receivers and amplifiers are specified in manufacturers' datasheets. Noise figures can also be measured with a noise figure meter. A component generates noise internally, which degrades the SNR of the signal passing through it by adding noise to the signal. A component can be modeled as a noise-free amplifier of gain G, with noise added to the signal in a summing junction preceding the perfect amp, as shown below.

Noise temperature is related to noise figure as follows:

F[dB] = 10log(1 + T/T₀)
T = (F - 1)T₀

System Sensitivity

Definition: The minimum discernible signal (MDS) is the input that gives an output signal-to-noise ratio of 0 dB (where the signal power is equal to the noise power).

MDS[watts] = kT₀BF

where F is the noise figure of the component or system. In dB this is

MDS[dB] = 10log(kT₀) + 10logB + F[dB]
MDS[dBm] = -174 + 10logB + F[dB]

Alternatively, in terms of noise temperature

MDS[watts] = kTB

where T is the noise temperature of the component or system in Kelvin. In dB this would be

MDS[dBm] = -199 + 10logT + 10logB

Definition: The sensitivity is the smallest signal we can put in to get a specified minimum SNR out of the system or component. The noise generated inside the system or component is what limits the sensitivity. The graph below shows the response of a receiver whose sensitivity (for 10 dB SNR) is -90 dBm.

The broader the bandwidth of the receiver, the more noise it passes to its output, so sensitivity is bandwidth-dependent. The relationship between sensitivity and noise figure is

Seinsitivity[dBm] = MDS[dBm] + (S/N)_min[dB]

It is usually desirable to operate the receiver at some distance away from the antenna, so a transmission line is needed. This will degrade the sensitivity of the system as a whole. The loss in the transmission line is equivalent to its noise figure and can be lumped in with the receiver noise figure rather than being considered separately:

F[dB] = A_o[dB] + F_rx[dB]

This degrades the system sensitivity and increases the antenna gain needed. A preamp will reduce the noise figure of the system if its noise figure is low enough and if the gain is correctly chosen. This will reduce the system sensitivity and allow us to use a lower gain antenna or give us a better SNR using the same antenna.

The noise figure of a cascaded system (which includes amps, transmission lines, and the receiver) is a function of the noise figures and gains of the individual components, and can be derived from the noise figure definition to be

F_sys = F₁ + (F₂-1)/G₁ + (F₃-1)/(G₁G₂) +...+ (F_n-1)/(G₁G₂...G_n-1)

where F₁ and G₁ are the (linear) noise figure and gain of the first component (the one furthest from the receiver) and the nth component is the receiver.

Example: What is the noise figure (in dB) of the following system?

Solution: First we convert all of the noise figures and gains into linear values.

F₁ = 10^4/10 = 2.51
G₁ = 10^15/10 = 31.6
F₂[dB] = A_o[dB] + F_rx[dB] = 26 dB
F₂[dB] = 10^26/10 = 398
F_sys = F₁ + (F₂-1)/G₁ = 15.1
F_sys = 11.8 dB

Designing for Maximum Sensitivity

It is apparent from the system noise figure equation that if the gains are large enough, then all terms will be insignificant in comparison with the first term. Therefore the system noise figure will be approximately equal to the noise figure of the first component. F_sys = F₁ is approximately correct as long as (F₂-1)/G₁ << F₁ and (F₃-1)/(G₁G₂) << F₁ etc. If we ignore the -1 in the numerator and convert the first condition to dB, then it becomes

F₂[dB] - G₁[dB] << F₁[dB]

As a rule of thumb, 10 dB is usually taken as equivalent to "much much greater than," so

G₁[dB] = 10 + F₂ - F₁[dB]

A similar process for the second condition results in

G₂[dB] = 10 + F₃[dB] - F₁[dB] - G₁[dB]

The 10 dB factor is called the excess gain of the amplifier. The strategy of choosing amplifier gains large enough to make the system noise figure approximately equal to the noise figure of the preamp (the amplifier closest to the antenna) is called designing for maximum sensitivity. This strategy will allow the system to detect the weakest possible signal.

German Patent Number: 225204
                Year: 1909
            Inventor: Hans Beggerow
   Original Document: German Patent Number 225204

Claim (translated from the original German): Airborne wiring diagram, marked by two dangling wires of unequal length, which in the vicinity of the airship form a Lecher system.

Beverage Antenna

 US Patent Number: 1381089
             Year: 1920
         Inventor: Harold H. Beverage
Original Document: US Patent Number 1381089

Excerpt: In carrying my invention into effect I make use of a horizontal preferably aperiodic antenna extending in a direction parallel to the direction of transmission of the signals to be received. This antenna is constructed with distributed capacity inductance and resistance of such values that the currents produced therein by the desired signals increase progressively from the end of the antenna nearest the transmitting station becoming in the preferred case, the maximum at the end farthest from the transmitting station.

Franklin Antenna

British Patent Number: 242342
                 Year: 1924
             Inventor: Charles Samuel Franklin
    Original Document: British Patent Number 242342

Abstract: In order to secure a pronounced directional effect from aerials of the type that are electrically long in comparison with the signal wavelength, provision is made for suppressing radiation from every alternate half wavelength of the stationary-wave formation along the aerial. Fig. 2 shows, for example the normal conditions existing along an aerial A one-and-a-half times the signal wavelength, the stationary- wave formation being shown by the curve B, whilst the polar diagram of radiation is illustrated by the six-point curve C. By doubling back on itself the central stationary-wave segment of the aerial, the resultant polar curve is altered to the form shown in Fig. 3. Alternatively, the doubled-back portion may be replaced by an electrical equivalent, such as an inductance coil with or without a parallel condenser, substantially tuned to the fundamental wavelength. The longer or higher the aerial, modified in this manner, the sharper is the directional effect. The invention may be applied to aerials of the type described in Specification 226,246.

Yagi-Uda Antenna

Japanese Patent Number: 69115
                  Year: 1926
             Inventors: Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda
     Original Document: Japanese Patent Number 69115, page 1
                        Japanese Patent Number 69115, page 2

The Yagi antenna is an array of dipoles coupled by electric and magnetic fields. It was effectively used by the allies in World War II as a radar antenna and then saw widespread use throughout the world as a television receiving antenna. This remarkable structure allows the elements to be combined into a high-gain, unidirectional array without interconnecting feed lines. Each element is a continuous piece of metal without an insulator in the center, providing high strength and simple construction. The antenna also has very low weight and wind load compared to its gain. (My thanks to Harry Hsieh, a patent engineer in Taiwan, for obtaining the original patent document.)

Bruce Antenna

 US Patent Number: 1813143
             Year: 1927
         Inventor: Edmond Bruce
Original Document: US Patent Number 1813143

Excerpt: Because of the physical dimensions of the antenna, energy supplied thereto by a local source for radiation, or derived from a wave incident thereupon, produces in the active elements currents which are in phase with each other.

Sterba Antenna

 US Patent Number: 1885151
             Year: 1929
         Inventor: Ernest J. Sterba
Original Document: US Patent Number 1885151

Excerpt: It is one object of this invention to transmit or receive radio frequency waves with greater directivity in the earth's plane than heretofore practiced. It is another object of this invention to transmit or receive radio frequency waves in an extremely low-lying angle of projection. By means of the invention the above two objects may be achieved jointly so as to make possible a remarkably close approach to the theoretical ideal of point-to-point communication in which all the transmitted energy is utilized at the related receivers. It is still another object of this invention to transmit energy between the antenna elements and their associated translating apparatus with comparatively less energy loss and in a more simple and inexpensive manner than heretofore done.

Rhombic Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2285565
             Year: 1931
         Inventor: Edmond Bruce
Original Document: US Patent Number 2285565

Excerpt: An object of the invention is to render directive antennae capable of effective operation over a considerable range of wave lengths. Another object is to secure a relatively high angle of reception or emanation. An additional object of the invention is to enable an antenna to have a sharp selectivity. A further object is to economize in the cost of supporting structures as compared with that of previous antennae of similar directional characteristics. A still further object of the invention is to discriminate against undesired horizontally projected energy.

Turnstile Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2086976
             Year: 1935
         Inventor: George H. Brown
Original Document: US Patent Number 2086976

Excerpt: I am aware that vertical antenna systems of a height not exceeding a half wavelength may be used for horizontal radiation. Such systems are satisfactory for long wavelengths but are defective for short waves. It has been proposed to reverse phases between alternate half wave sections and thereby permit a plurality of half wavelength sections to be employed. An antenna system of several half wave sections offers practical difficulties in the matter of separately insulating the sections. It has also been proposed to employ horizontal antenna elements with insulated masts and phase adjusting circuits, but such systems offer serious structural and electrical difficulties. The novel arrangement which I propose may be used to overcome these difficulties and at the same time improve the radiating efficiency.

Folded Dipole Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2283914
             Year: 1937
         Inventor: Philip S. Carter
Original Document: US Patent Number 2283914

Excerpt: Although the dipole has a sufficiently broad tuning characteristic to give satisfactory transmission and reception over a band of frequencies such as may be used in television, it has been found that when this type of half wave antenna is matched to the transmission line in any of the known ordinary ways (as by the use of shunt impedance elements, or fanning and tapping of the transmission lines, or by the use of the quarter wave section of line) the tuning characteristic of the dipole is made very much narrower and is insufficient for the band of frequencies now generally used for television purposes. As a result of tests made on half wave dipoles, the conclusion was reached that the desired flat impedance versus frequency characteristic over a broad range must be obtained without the use of the usual impedance matching circuits between the antenna and the transmission line.

Coaxial Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2184729
             Year: 1937
         Inventor: Arnold B. Bailey
Original Document: US Patent Number 2184729

Excerpt: One object of this invention is to produce an undistorted radio field of maximum intensity. Another object of this invention is to eliminate radiation from a transmission line and other auxiliary apparatus associated with an antenna system. Still another object of this invention is to secure, in practice, an antenna directive characteristic which is the same as the corresponding theoretical characteristic. A further object of this invention is to prevent, in a coaxial line system, the establishment of currents on the outer surface of the sheath.

Butterfly Dipole Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2175253
             Year: 1938
         Inventor: Philip S. Carter
Original Document: US Patent Number 2175253

Excerpt: The present invention relates to a short wave antenna system and has for one of its objects to provide a simple form of short wave antenna which has an impedance versus frequency characteristic considerably wider than that of a simple dipole type of antenna.

Slot Antenna

 British Patent Number: 515684
                  Year: 1938
              Inventor: Alan Dower Blumlein
     Original Document: British Patent Number 515684

Abstract: A high-frequency transmission line, which also acts as a radiator, consists of a metal conducting tube 1, Fig. 1, of copper with a longitudinal slot 2. The tube forms a "channel for the transmission of magnetic flux," and is equivalent to a line having inductance in series, and shunted by elements of inductance and capacity in parallel. High-frequency signaling currents may be fed to the line by a coil 4, or by leads 4a connected across the slot, and are taken off by a coil 5. Flux leakage across the slot may be regulated by a plate 6, Fig. 2. Or the size of the slot may be adjusted, in order to tune the line to the working frequency, as shown in Figs. 3 and 5. The tube may be used as a transmitting aerial, giving maximum radiation at right-angles to its length, and comparatively little radiation axially. It is equivalent to a single-turn loop or frame, one wavelength long. The feed may be central or at one end. As shown in Fig. 6, the tube 7 is supported at voltage nodes 9 from a hollow mast 8, and is fed with signal energy at points 10, 11, half a wave length apart, from leads which are led up through the mast as shown in Fig. 7. A tube with a diameter of from six to twelve inches is suitable for transmitting a wavelength of 5 meters, though tubes of greater diameter, provided with more than one slot, may be used for covering a wide frequency-range.

Corner Reflector Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2270314
             Year: 1940
         Inventor: John D. Kraus
Original Document: US Patent Number 2270314

Excerpt: The use of reflecting surfaces to direct the waves from or to an antenna is old.

Discone Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2368663
             Year: 1943
         Inventor: Armig G. Kandoian
Original Document: US Patent Number 2368663

Excerpt: In keeping with progress made during the last few years in the development of ultra-high frequency radio technique, and applications thereof to aircraft communication, direction finding, and so forth, it has become necessary to develop special antennas and antenna systems suitable for installation on such aircraft. Flying conditions are such that these antennas must necessarily be small and rigid in their construction and also offer a minimum of wind resistance, in order that the flying efficiency of the aircraft will be unimpaired. In accordance with my invention I have provided a small rigid antenna suitable for mounting on the surface of the fuselage or other component of the airplane structure and in certain embodiments I have also provided a streamlined protecting shield or housing covering or so cooperating with the construction of the antenna system as to greatly reduce wind resistance. This housing preferably takes the form of a "blister" which is only slightly elevated from the normal surface of the aircraft on which it may be installed.

Batwing Super-Turnstile Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2480153
             Year: 1945
         Inventor: Robert W. Masters
Original Document: US Patent Number 2480153

Excerpt: This invention relates to radio antennas, and more particularly to broadband antenna systems having vertical directivity, whereby the principle radiation or response may be substantially confined to a horizontal plane. Such antennas are particularly useful in the transmission and reception of television signals, in blind-landing systems and other high frequency radio beacon systems for aircraft and the like.

Quad Antenna Element

 US Patent Number: 2537191
             Year: 1947
         Inventor: Clarence C. Moore
Original Document: US Patent Number 2537191

Excerpt: In certain parts of the world, where elevations above sea level are great, as for example, in many parts of South America, the corona problem is particularly bad even at relatively low values of power radiated. It would be desirable to provide an antenna wherein the corona problem would be substantially eliminated at all altitudes and also where large amounts of radio frequency power are to be radiated. It would furthermore be desirable to provide an antenna in which the voltage problem was eliminated so that the expense of insulators for supporting the same could be greatly reduced and whereby ice and snow would have substantially no deleterious effect as far as the operating characteristics of the antenna are concerned.

Heliwhip Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2966679
             Year: 1957
         Inventor: Edward F. Harris
Original Document: US Patent Number 2966679

Excerpt: My invention relates to an improved helical antenna having small length in relation to the wave length of the radiated energy and characterized by a highly favorable current distribution and radiation resistance without the use of massive loading elements on the antenna structure.

Log Periodic Antenna

 US Patent Number: 2985879
             Year: 1958
         Inventor: Raymond H. Du Hamel
Original Document: US Patent Number 2985879

Excerpt: It is known that an antenna whose geometry is described completely by angles, such as an infinite biconical antenna, would make an ideal broadband radiator since its operation is theoretically completely independent of frequency. The theoretical performance of the infinite biconical antenna is not achieved in practice, however, since such an antenna must be of finite length, and the "end effect," i.e., the effect of finite rather than infinite length, leads to radiation characteristics showing considerable variation with frequency. A planar antenna closely related to the biconical antenna (the "bow-tie" antenna) is likewise theoretically frequency-independent when infinite in size. The "end effect" of an actual bow-tie antenna, however, limits the range of frequencies for which the radiation pattern is essentially constant to a bandwidth of 2 or 3 to 1.

The present invention concerns modified planar "bow-tie" antennas in which the "end effect" has been reduced to such an extent as to permit bandwidths of 10 to 1 or more to be achieved with structures of practical size. In general, this effect is achieved by introducing periodic discontinuities along the marginal edges of the bow-tie antenna, the geometry of the discontinuities being such that all dimensions involved are directly proportional to the distance from the feed point of the antenna, i.e., the vertex or the narrowest portion of the "bow-tie."

Backfire Antenna

 US Patent Number: 3122745
             Year: 1959
         Inventor: Hermann W. Ehrenspeck
Original Document: US Patent Number 3122745

Excerpt: The gain of slow wave antennas depends on the phase velocity of the surface wave traveling along it and the length of the antenna; however, for a given length there is an optimum phase velocity beyond which the gain decreases, therefore, for adjustment of antennas at optimum phase velocity, the gain becomes proportional to the antenna length.

The utilization of the concept of this invention whereby the use of a reflection arrangement to cause a traverse of at least part of the energy of an endfire slow wave array back along the array has been found to increase the effective length of the array and, therefore, cause an increase in antenna gain. The gain increase thus achieved is accomplished without extensive modification of the antenna or physically increasing the length.

Swiss Quad Antenna

 Swiss Patent Number: 384644
                Year: 1960
            Inventor: Rudolf Baumgartner
   Original Document: Swiss Patent Number 384644

Excerpt (translated from the original German): Parallel to the fed quadratic element, following the principle of the yagi antenna, a second quadratic element of somewhat larger size is erected as a parasitic reflector. This construction, shown in Fig. 5, is known by the name "cubical quad" and is becoming increasingly popular, although current construction methods, where quadratic elements are made from wire and supported by bamboo or wood, are not durable enough. Modern, all-metal construction is considerably expensive, and the metal support elements cause electrical interference.

The Problem with Multiplication

Consider the sum of two numbers :

0.1234 + 0.5555 = 0.6789

We can do this in our heads because only one addition is needed per digit. Working our way from the the least significant digit to the most significant we get

4+5 = 9
3+5 = 8
2+5 = 7
1+5 = 6
0+0 = 0

If the sum of any two digits is greater than 9 then we need to mentally carry over an extra 1 to the sum of the next greater pair of digits. This is not at all difficult. Sumation in general is a fairly simple task, and its simplicity carries over to the digital circuitry in the calculators and personal computers we use today. Multiplication, on the other hand, is much more complicated:

(0.1234)(0.5555) = ?

I'm not going to try do this in my head, it's simply too painful. In an emergency I'm confident I could crunch the numbers and get a result of 0.0685487, but my first reflex is to look for the nearest calculator. Before the 1970s when inexpensive calculators became available, engineers often used slide rules for difficult computations like this. On my trusty Keuffel and Esser Decitrig, for example, which is a slide rule I haven't routinely used since 1974, I get a result of

(0.1234)(0.5555) = 0.0686

Trying to squeeze out the last 6 is difficult, even on a high-precision instrument like the Decitrig. Could it possibly be 0.0685 or 0.0687? It's hard to be sure from where the cursor sits on the scale. For most engineering applications, however, a result of 0.0686 plus or minus 0.0001 is plenty accurate.

In the digital age we still need to multiply, but instead of straining our brain or our eyes we let digital logic take over. Such a feat requires a lot of transistors. Consider, for example, the Intel 8088 microprocessor that graced the motherboards of the first IBM personal computers. It could add long numbers together with ease, but multiplication was another story. Multiplication took a long time because the chip had to more or less do what we used to do in Mrs. Schmidt's 3rd grade math class: break the multiplication down into a long series of simple products and additions. To speed up the process, Intel created the 8087 math coprocessor, an entire chip dedicated to the task of multiplying two numbers together. Even the mighty 32-bit 80386 chip needed an external 80387 math coprocessor. It wasn't until the 80486 that all those multiplying transistors could be squeezed onto the main chip. To this day modern digital signal processors dedicate huge amounts of circuitry to multiplication.

So here's a tantalizing thought: what if we could multiply 2 numbers together using just a single AND gate?

The AND gate produces an output Z=1 only if its inputs are X=1 and Y=1. If either input is zero then the output is zero. This is not a very complicated device. It's about as simple as they get. So how can we possibly use such a small circuit to multiply numbers like 0.1234 and 0.5555?

A Strange Way to Represent Numbers

What if we were to describe each number by a probability? Here's how it would work. Consider, for example, the product (0.5)(0.25). For the first input of 0.5 we flip a coin. If it comes up heads then we set the upper input of the AND gate to X=1. If it's tails then X=0. There is a 50% chance of X=1. In other words the probability of X=1 is 0.5. As a mathematical formula we express this as

P{X=1} = 0.5

The input X can only be zero or one. We won't know which of these values it will have until the coin is tossed, but because the probability of X=1 is 0.5, then X represents the input 0.5.

For the second input of 0.25, let's put one white marble and three black marbles into a hat and pick one without looking. If the marble picked is white then Y=1. If it is black then Y=0. There is a 1 out of 4 chance of the marble being white, or in mathematical terms

P{Y=1} = 0.25

Thus Y represents the number 0.25.

To represent a number by a probability is a very strange concept, but here's why it warrants further investigation. Because of the AND gate, the output Z is a one only if both inputs are ones. Since the chance of X being one is 1/2 and the chance of Y being one is 1/4, then the chance of Z being one is (1/2)(1/4) = 1/8, or 0.125. Like its inputs, the AND gate output can only be a one or a zero. We don't know which until the coin is tossed and the marble is picked, but the probability of it being a one is precisely 0.125. Thus Z represents the number 0.125 the same way that X represents 0.5 and Y represents 0.25. It is equal to the product (0.5)(0.25) expressed as a probability. So by using this strange, "stochastic" representation of numbers we get an output that equals the product of the two inputs.

All of this works because of a fundamental priniciple: the probability of two statistically independent events is equal to the probability of the first event times the probability of the second. We represent any two arbitrary numbers a and b, each falling within the range of zero to one, by the inputs X and Y.

We start by making P{X=1} = a and P{Y=1} = b. Because of the AND gate we get

P{Z=1} = P{X=1 and Y=1}

and because the two events X=1 and Y=1 are independent this results in

P{X=1 and Y=1} = ( P{X=1} )( P{Y=1} )

Combining these two equations proves that we get the desired result

P{Z=1} = (a)(b)

Any two numbers between zero and one can be multiplied by the AND gate. If we could somehow make the probability of X=1 equal to 0.1234, and the probability of Y=1 equal to 0.5555, for example, then P{Z=1} is precisely 0.0685487. To generate these inputs we need something more practical than coins or marbles. One such system consists of a comparator and a random number generator.

Here a is a number between zero and one that we wish to multiply. R is a randomly generated number with the same number of bits as a. It is "uniformly distributed," meaning that any number between zero and one is equally likely. The chance of it being equal to 0.781 is the same as 0.003 or any other number between zero and one. (This is usually accomplished in practical circuits by simply making all of the bits that make up R statistically independent and each equally likely to be a one or a zero. In other words, the individual bits that make up R are completely random.)

The comparator produces a one if the input a is greater than the random number R. Otherwise it outputs a zero. If a=0.75, for example, then there is a 75% chance that it will be greater than R and thus P{X=1} = 0.75. More generally, the circuit ensures that

P{X=1} = P{a>R} = a

The comparator is performing the task of a binary-to-stochastic code converter because it converts a deterministic number represented by bits into a stochastic number represented by a probability.

The flip of a coin has no influence on the color of a marble. Similarly, a separate, statistically independent source of random numbers and another comparator are needed for b. This makes X and Y statistically independent. Any statistical correlation between them would inevitably corrupt the result.

There's No Free Lunch

There's a catch to all this. Somehow we need to convert the stochastic output Z into the deterministic value c = (a)(b). Even though P{Z=1} = c is a precise equation, we can only estimate the value of c based on our knowledge of Z. If we were to flip the coin and draw a marble 10 times in a row, for example, we might get, say, one occurance of Z=1 and 9 occurances of Z=0. From this we would estimate that c = 1/10 = 0.1. This is fairly close to the correct answer but much worse than what we would get with a slide rule. If we repeat the process until we have 100 values of Z then we could get 12 or so occurances of Z=1 and estimate the result to be c = 12/100 = 0.12. A result of 0.11 or 0.13 might also easily occur. There is even a slight chance that through an evil twist of fate the estimate is c = 0.0 or c = 1.0. It is, after all, theoretically possible to win the million-dollar state lottery. Our estimate gets more accurate, and the chance of a bizarre answer becomes less likely, when we use more samples.

To get a really accurate estimate we need a lot of samples, and that takes a long time. Stochastic multiplication thus greatly reduces the size of the circuit, but also greatly increases the time required to get an accurate answer. If the circuit has a clock speed measured in MHz and the input signal contains frequencies measured in Hz, then stochastic computing has some real potential. This is often the case for AC power test equipment, for example, or for the measurement of physical quantities like temperature and pressure.

Another potential application is in neural networks, where the accuracy of a single multiplication is often not as important as the cumulative effect of thousands of multiplications being performed simultaneously. A biological neuron, after all, is not a terribly accurate device, but if millions of them are combined into the complex structure that we call the human brain, then you get the most capable cognitive system on the planet! Even if we can't multiply long numbers in our heads.

Further Reading

R. Kuehnel, "Binomial Logic: Extending Stochastic Computing to High-Bandwidth Signals," Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, 2002, pp. 1089-1093.

S.L. Toral, J.M. Quero, and L.G. Franquelo, "Stochastic Pulse Code Arithmetic," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2000), pp. I-599 to I-602.

J.G. Ortega, C.L. Janer, J.M. Quero, L.G. Franquelo, J. Pinilla, and J. Serrano, "Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog Conversion Based on Stochastic Logic," IEEE International Conference on Industrial Electronics, Control, and Instrumentation, 1995, Vol. 2, pp. 995-999.

J.M. Quero, S.L. Toral, J.G. Ortega, and L.G. Franquelo, "Continuous Time Filter Using Stochastic Logic," 42nd Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2000, Vol. 1, pp. 113-116.

B.R. Gaines, "Stochastic Computing Systems," Advances in Information Systems Science, Julius T. Tou, ed., Vol. 2 (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), pp. 37-172.

Bradley D. Brown and Howard C. Card, "Stochastic Neural Computation I: Computational Elements," IEEE Transactions on Computers, Vol. 50, No. 9, Sep 2001, pp. 891-905.

The new translation of Ernst Beckman's The Swedes in America is at the Museum Store at Chicago's Swedish American Museum. It also ships worldwide from Amazon.com.

Immigration is an enduring topic, just as much today as it has been throughout the history of the United States. Scores of books have been written about the people who left their homeland to seek their fortunes in other countries.

The book, Våra Landsmän i Amerika (The Swedes in America) was written in 1883 by the Swedish journalist Ernst Beckman who produced a sweeping chronicle of the Swedish emigration to all parts of the young American country. He traveled far and wide to interview and live the life that the Swedish immigrants lived in the 1880s, where he served as an eye witness to the dauntless courage and adventurous spirit of his countrymen. The book presents a panorama of how and why Swedish citizens left their home to settle in their new foster land.

The first two chapters portray the throngs of emigrants who stand before the ship that they will embark for the first stage of the voyage to America. After a stop in Hull, Great Britain, the ship starts over the ocean to the "promised land". The author vividly depicts the harrowing voyage across the sea with unpredictable weather, sea sickness, and some deaths, but also the happy moments of levity, when the emigrants from many different lands sing and dance together during calmer seas. The second chapter recounts their arrival in the New World in New York's Castle Garden (Ellis Island) where the teeming masses of emigrants were entered into the books and processed as newcomers into a new land. Every emigrant quickly learned that the so-called "travel agents" were as interested in fleecing them as they were "helping " them to their ultimate destination.

Where did the Swedes settle? It turns out that we can find Swedish citizens and their progeny in every state of the Union. They, like many others, listened to the call "Go West, young man. Go West". The Swedes were a part of the intrepid settlers in the Red River Valley, in the Northern timberlands, in the Great Plains, and they joined in the California gold rush.

The author describes the Swedish crofters and later homesteaders who sowed wheat in the plains. His vivid descriptions record their hardships with severe weather, locusts, and hard work as the Swedes adjusted to America's Great Plains. Yet the desire to build a home on the prairie drove the immigrants to succeed and to thrive. The chapter on the immensity of life on the plains of the Dakotas describes how a farmer starts out to sow and plough the wheat seeds on one row in the spring. He continues his plowing on that same row until autumn and then returns to cuts the wheat that had grown up in the spring.

Beckman also categorizes the different social characteristics of the Swedish immigrants from farmers to lumbermen to servant girls to large landowners. These were the workers who forged the path for the next wave of Swedish emigrants.

One chapter is devoted to the birth of the Swedish-American Press and its subsequent amazing growth. Similarly, the chaptered entitled "The Pulpit" juxtaposes the American Lutheran Swedish Church synods to the State Church of Sweden with a commentary on the important role of other religious sects that have Swedish adherents.

Chapter 15 "About Each and Every One of Us" contains interesting and entertaining sections that address language and how the Swedes adapted to their new tongue. Names are important and the reader learns how and why the Swedes were obliged to adapt their names to suit English pronunciation; for example Ákereberg became Okerbery; Ljung became Young, etc.

The last two chapters cover the two sides of emigration. One side represents the effects of the massive population movements from Sweden and how they created enormous consequences for the old homeland, economically and demographically. Emigration created a veritable "national deficit" of people.

The last chapter analyzes the reasons for emigration that include economic authority without government intervention, freedom of religion, freedom of conscience and ideas. Beckman writes "We are all children of immigrants. These population movements are grounded in human nature. Europe's populating by our ancestors to form the current nations is one page in emigration's history; the next page is America's."

This dual-language book contains the original work in Swedish by Ernst Beckman and the English translation by Irmeli Kuehnel. The English translation is placed in the first part of the book, and the second part includes the original Swedish book. The pages have been synchronized, as much as possible to mirror the page numbers of the text in both versions so that the reader can refer to the original. A section at the end includes Endnotes, that provide additional information or clarification on people, places and events that may not be familiar to the 21st century reader.

Primary Source

Beckman, Ernst Johan, Våra Landsmän in America, Ivar Hæggström Boktryckeri, Stockholm, 1883.

Further Reading

¹ Anderson, Philip J and Dag Blanck, eds. Swedish-American Life in Chicago: Cultural and Urban Aspects of an Immigrant People, 1850-1930, Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1992.

² Anderson, Philip J and Dag Blanck, eds. Swedes in the Twin Cities: Immigrant Life and Minnesota's Urban Frontier. St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.

³ Barton, H. Arnold, A Folk Divided. Homeland Swedes and Swedish Americans, 1840 - 1940, Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994.

⁴ Barton, H. Arnold, Letters from the Promised Land, 1840-1914, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1975.

⁵ Beckman, Ernst Johan, Amerikanska Studier: Pressen in Förenta Staterna, Ivar Hæggström Boktryckeri, Stockholm, 1883.

⁶ Beckman, Ernst Johan, Från Nya Verlden: Reseskidringar från Americas Förenta Staterna, University of Michigan Library, Ann Arbor, 1891.

⁷ Nelson, Helge, The Swedes and the Swedish Settlements in North America. 2 vols. C.W.K. Gleeup: Lund, 1943.

⁸ Moberg, Wilhelm, The Immigrants, Bonnier AB, Stockholm, 1969.

⁹ Norman, Hans and Harland Runblom, Transatlantic Connections: Nordic Migration to the New World after 1800. Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1988.

¹⁰ Ward, Christopher, New Sweden on the Delaware, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1938.

by Richard Kuehnel

The Colonial Annapolis Historic District on Maryland's Severn River is home to an unusually wide variety of birds, especially along Fleet Street, where closely packed 18th and 19th century houses border a bicentennial roadway designed to allow only a single horse carriage to pass at a time. Just as when they were built, these homes have no front yards and their back yards are not much larger. They form a tightly knit labyrinth of walls, fences, mature trees, and manicured shrubbery that offer birds an abundance of shelter and escape.

In the center of the neighborhood is Fleet Street Park, where a human can rest on a shady bench and see birds enjoying a carefree lifestyle insulated from the usual wildlife angst. Cooper's hawks are obviously aware of the target-rich environment. They pass through occasionally, but usually come up short — there are too many obstacles and hiding places in these historically tiny back yards. House sparrows and other urban dwellers often wander over from City Dock and Main Street, but cardinals, finches, titmice, chickadees, doves, woodpeckers, and robins make this neighborhood their home. All of the bird photographs on this page (18 species so far) were taken in backyards between Fleet Street and Cornhill Street.

Blue Jays

Blue jays love to socialize. As a jay approaches, it rallies others to the scene with several distinctive shrieks that get louder as it gets closer. You don't have to look for a blue jay on Fleet Street — just listen for the enthusiastic proclamations of its pending arrival. This carousel of photographs shows a few of the neighborhood's frequent visitors.

American Robins

Robin nests are rebuilt year after year in the same carefully selected locations. Who knows — maybe those rambunctious little chicks are living in a nesting spot that is as old as the 18th century colonial that supports it.

Carolina Chickadees

Chickadees forage just like titmice — anything edible is taken "to go" and then eaten in a favorite perch. As the final photographs of this series show, a chickadee has a well-scripted culinary ritual — it typically grasps a seed between its feet while simultaneously maintaining a grip on a branch. Then it uses its sharp beak to crack open the seed to extract the tasty kernel within. Perhaps these maneuvers are not as complex as cracking lobster claws on West Street, but try eating lobster with just your feet!

Carolina Wrens

Carolina wrens know the topology of the neighborhood better than anyone in town — they investigate every nook and cranny of every back yard. The one-inch space between a wooden post and the fence it supports, the underside of every ledge — everything is subject to intense exploration and twice-daily inspections. What are they looking for? Do they ever find it?

Common Grackles

Grackles have an intensity and demeanor that give them a truly sinister persona — they are anything but cute. They appear rarely on Fleet Street, but always as a large, rowdy flock that drives the locals away for a while. Sort of like the Power Boat Show every October.

Cooper's Hawks

A Cooper's hawk passes through every so often, especially in winter, but raptors find it difficult to navigate the obstacles of tiny back yards — there is no room for the tactics of a high-speed, swooping glide path. On rare occasions, however, a mourning dove will get overly complacent with the tranquility of its environs, and only a heap of feathers on a brick patio will lay witness to its demise. On Fleet Street, a hawk's main hunting tactic is to wait in ambush for an unsuspecting victim, but another approach is to fearlessly dive into a thick bush to seize a bird hiding within. As these photographs demonstrate, a Cooper's hawk has complete azimuth and elevation control - It can keep its body stationary and move its head in any direction to lock onto potential targets.

Dark-Eyed Juncos

The peak tourist season for Annapolis runs from spring to fall. Dark-eyed juncos, on the other hand, fly in from Canada just in time for the first snowfall south of the Mason-Dixon line. They feel right at home amidst school closures and federal employee snow days. When spring finally arrives, it's time to stretch out the feathers and fly back to Hudson's Bay for the summer breeding season.

Downy Woodpeckers

Downy woodpeckers have strong gripping power and great dexterity, enabling them to perch in any position. A smooth vertical surface poses no problem, as some of these photographs depict. It can be argued that squirrels can do even better, but they have twice the number of limbs! Males have a distinctive red patch on the back of their heads.

European Starlings

European starlings were brought to New York City's Central Park in the 1890s by citizens wanting to see all of the birds of Shakespearean literature take roost in North America. That makes these birds relative newcomers to the neighborhood. Young starlings are plain, dull gray. The adults grow white-tipped feathers for the winter, making them look spotted. By spring the white wears off, giving them an iridescent shine — quite a variety of looks for single species of bird!

Gray Catbirds

Gray catbirds are related to mockingbirds — when a male catbird finds just the right perch, he will sing like he's auditioning for Don Giovanni.

Hermit Thrushes

Identification of these birds is difficult, because they closely resemble other species. Wood thrushes and veeries are known to frequent Maryland, but based on descriptions by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, these birds look like hermit thrushes.

House Finches

House finches travel in a large flock. They hang around together for a few minutes and then move on to another spot. Occasionally, however, a pair of birds will stay behind to get some respite from the frantic pace. After all, the flock will fly through the neighborhood again in just a couple of hours. My wife and I like to employ this tactic at Chicago O'Hare.

House Sparrows

House sparrows love the pulsating vibe of a thriving, urban environment, like the tourists dining on along Market Space and the rogue french fry that escapes from a fork. They often wander over to Fleet for a few hours, perhaps to enjoy the serenity and the organic cuisine. To really relax, they like to take dust baths on the north side of nearby East Street. If you disturb them there, they'll give you a look that says, "what, there's no room on the opposite sidewalk?"

Mourning Doves

Do mourning doves always lounge around in a puffed-out basketball configuration, as most of the photographs in this carousel imply? Hardly, especially when temperatures are above freezing, but these moments make cuddly photographs. The laws of thermodynamics dictate that minimizing your surface area minimizes your heat loss and maximizes the thermal benefits of the calories you have consumed — a perfect sphere is the optimum shape for winter. Mourning doves never achieve perfect sphericality, but they strive to get close. There is a technical term for this type of bird behavior: "loafing."

Northern Cardinals

The northern cardinal is the official state bird of Virginia, West Virginia, and several other nearby states. Maryland has the Baltimore oriole. Fleet Street, however, must not have gotten the memo. The neighborhood has long been the home to a pair of cardinals: a bright red male and a grayish female. Orioles, on the other hand, very rarely make an appearance. Here is a carousel of cardinals spotted between Cornhill and Fleet.

Song Sparrows

Song sparrows are welcome visitors throughout the year. Some of their songs are recorded here.

Tufted Titmice

The silvery gray tufted titmouse, with its unmistakable brushy crest, is a frequent visitor to the neighborhood. Unfortunately titmice don't stay long. Turn your gaze in another direction for just a second and they're gone. They seem to hang with chickadees, so if you see one, just wait minute or two and the other may show up too.

White Throated Sparrows

White throated sparrows are winter residents, with the same snow vacation schedule as juncos. They have two color schemes: white-crowned and tan-crowned.

Eastern Gray Squirrels

Squirrels are obviously not birds, but they are abundant along Fleet Street and have a big impact on bird life. Their whimsically bold dashes along walls and fences are a significant challenge to bird tranquility. Even the smallest birds have no real fear of them. They just try to avoid their bungling behavior, because a squirrel can carelessly plough through an entire flock of resting birds at any moment. Maryland State Senator and long-time resident John Astle has a tip: if you want a squirrel to actually eat a peanut, instead of burying it in a neighbor's yard, remove the shell before offering it to the furry moocher.

Black Squirrels

Black squirrels are actually dark-colored (melanic) variants of eastern gray squirrels, and do not represent a separate species. They are very rarely seen in Annapolis, however, and thus draw immediate attention during their momentary presence. Here are a few lucky photographs.

The Finnish medieval folk poem Bishop Henrik's Murder Ballad [Piispa Henrikin surmavirsi] relates the events surrounding an alleged crusade to the territory of Finland by the Bishop who was much later proclaimed the nation's patron saint by the Catholic Church. According to Church history, the Swedish King Erik and Bishop Henrik of Uppsala undertook a crusade to Finland with the object of converting the pagan Finns to Christianity.

The poem originated sometime between the years 1156-1158, although written records of the tale were discovered much later. Three main sources recount the ill-fated crusade and the ultimate martyrdom of Henrik. The earliest source, Ecce magnus presbiter, written in Latin, is a liturgy set to music that describes Henrik's arrival in Finland and his encounter with a nameless murderer whom Henrik intended to punish according to Canon law. The criminal attacks and kills Bishop Henrik.¹

The second source, the Swedish legend of Saint Erik and Bishop Henrik, relates the missionary travels of King Erik of Sweden and Bishop Henry whose objectives were to bring Christianity to Finland and to establish the Church in the realm. According to the legend Bishop Henrik is murdered by the peasant farmer Lalli who pursued the prelate because he forcefully took food and drink from his home. Swedish scholars discount the existence of Bishop Henrik as a real historical figure in contrast with Finnish Church researchers who maintain that archeological evidence proves that Henrik lived and ultimately died in Finland.²

Oiva Linturi contributed a well-documented pro-gradu study in 1916 of numerous Finnish sources of Bishop Henrik's Murder Ballad.³ The work is significant in that it examines in great depth the various adaptations of the poem from a phonetic, lexical, and regional standpoint. Linturi's research presents the orthographic differences in each version and a linguistic comparison of the poetic variants. Six Finnish variations of the poem exist, representing the third source of the poem. The variants are numbered I through V. Version II has an A and a B copy. Linturi meticulously recounts distinctions in vowel and consonant length, discrepancies and similarities in orthography, and distinctions in vocabulary, all of which establish the geographical home of every manuscript.

Linturi also scrutinizes plot and character presentations. As Henrik travels to Finland, he decides to stop at the home of the peasant landowner, Lalli who is not at home during the visit. Instead Henrik confronts Lalli's wife Kerttu and demands food and drink. Kerttu begrudgingly allows Henrik to take food for himself and his horse, but she demands payment. Henrik pays for the provision, but the manuscripts vary on the sequence of events during this encounter and what Henrik actually provides as payment.

When Lalli returns, his wife Kerttu details the happenings during the visit of the Bishop. The individual versions of the poem describe Kerttu as a useless liar, who claims Henrik did not pay for the upkeep. Greatly angered by what his wife has told him, Lalli pursues Henrik and kills him in a rage. The various accounts of the murder describe widely differing events to include miracles that involve incidents like Lalli losing his scalp when he puts on the Bishop's miter and later takes it off.⁴

The figure of Lalli has been described as a murderous criminal in many of the sources.⁵ Nonetheless, other sources have elevated Lalli to the stature of a revolutionary folk hero who confronted the oppressive control of the medieval Church in Finland.⁶

In contrast to Lalli, whose character has been portrayed with negative and positive attributes,⁷ the figure of Kerttu has been consistently depicted as a lying shrew. Her stance as a peasant's wife, the female symbol of a medieval class that felt itself subjugated by the Church, has not received the same treatment as Lalli. Earlier research has contributed no close examination about the possibility that her reaction to Henrik's behavior and her motivation for not admitting that he had paid for the food may have been rooted in the same rebellious anger displayed by Lalli. The medieval Catholic Church viewed woman through the lens of misogyny as recorded by noted scholars on the Middle Ages like R. Howard Bloch,⁸ James A. Brundage,⁹ Georges Duby¹⁰ and Joan M. Ferrante,¹¹ to name a few.

This preliminary article on the character Kerttu suggests that she appears to be a reflection of the woman hate espoused in the Middle Ages and that she has been tarred with the brush of misogyny that grew out of the teachings of the medieval Church. I intend to produce a follow-on study that examines Kerttu using the techniques articulated as "new historicism" by leading historians like Jeff Rider¹² and Bonnie Anderson and Judith Zinsser.¹³

References

¹ Mäntyjärvi, Jaakko. Ecce magnus presbiter. Chorus Cathedralis Aboensis, cond. Juha Kuivanen, Turku, June 2000.

² Heikkilä, Tuomas. Biskop Henrik. Wikipedia. January 2008.

³ Linturi, Oiva, Äännehistoriallinen tukielma piispa Henrikin surmarunon kielestä [Study of the Phonetic History of the Language in Bishop Henrik's Murder Poem], Pro-Gradu Study, Helsinki University 1916.

⁴ Katajala, Kimmo. "Suomen Ensimmäinen Murhamysteeri" [Finland's First Murder Mystery] in Piispa Henrikin surmavirsi [Bishop Henry's Murder Ballad], Urpo Vento, Editor. Suomen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Vaasa, 1999. 16 pages.

⁵ Heininen, Timo. "Talonpoika Lalli - Paha Pakana vai vihainen viljeilijä?" [The Peasant Lalli - an Evil Pagan or an Angry Farmer?]. Tiede. Sanoma Magazines Finland. 2004.

⁶ Kuisma, Väinö. Lalli: Suomen kansallisimman ajan vapaustaistelija [Lalli: Freedom Fighter during Finland's most nationalistic era]. Finland, 2007.

⁷ Tietosanakirja [Encyclopedia], Finland, 2006.

⁸Bloch, R. Howard. Medieval Misogyny and the Invention of Western Romantic Love. Chicago, London: U of Chicago Press, 1977.

⁹ Brundage, James A. Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe. Chicago, London: U of Chicago P, 1987.

¹⁰ Duby, Georges. Die Frau ohne Stimme. Liebe und Ehe im Mittelalter. Berlin, Klaus Wagenrecht, 1988.

¹¹ Ferrante, Joan M. "Biblical Exegesis." Women as Image in Medieval Literature from the Twelfth Century to Dante. Durham, NC: Labyrinth Press, 1985. 17-105.

¹² Rider, Jeff. "Other Voices. Historicism and the Interpretation of Medieval Texts." Exemplaria 1 (1989): 293-312.

¹³ Anderson, Bonnie S. and Judith P. Zinsser. A History of Their Own. NY: Harper, 1988.

The medieval European beast epic, popular in the twelfth century, represented an allegorical genre that used animal figures to satirise the courtly values and mores of the aristocratic courts in France and the Germanic realm. The concepts of courtly love and romantic love played a major role in the themes of medieval narratives and the animal epic arose as a vehicle of satire intended to cast the values of the aristocratic class into a humorous light. The beast epic has its roots in the fables of ancient Greece and Rome and scholars have traced the earliest connections to Aesop's fables. Examples of beast epics written in Middle Latin include Ecbasis captivi (1140-45) and Isengrimus (1148-50). These two early works were written by Germanic priests and were intended to expose the corrupt lower clergy, as well as the corrupt nobility. The earlier beast epics led to a specific form of twelfth century fox and wolf verse narratives and one of the most notable examples is the Old French Roman de Renart (between 1174 and 1205). It spawned several late medieval adaptations, created in the Dutch and Flemish region. These included the late twelfth century variants Van den vos Renaerde, Reinaerts Historie, and the verse epic Reinke de vos. In addition to the Dutch/Flemish works, an obscure Middle High German poet, Heinrich der Glichezare, produced a version of the fox epic, Reinhart Fuchs (ca. 1189/90).

The main themes in the medieval fox and wolf epics depict a series of confrontations between the fox and the wolf and his wife, the she-wolf Hersant, who are all are masquerading as mock courtly figures. Hersant represents a courtly lady who is subsequently raped by the fox, who appears as a scoundrel and criminal. The ideals of courtly love, chivalry, honour, and justice are depicted in a satirical light, meant to ridicule the nobility's lack of morals, the justice system and the Church.

Early research in the nineteenth century on beast epics in general and on the fox and wolf epics specifically concerned itself with studies of different manuscripts as sources for the literary material. Different versions of manuscripts were juxtaposed linguistically and thematically, and the comparative studies examined how Germanic versions related historically to the Middle Latin or Old French predecessors.

Subsequent scholarship in the first third of the twentieth century focused on comparing animal fabliaux in European countries and interpreting the techniques used in the different narratives for depicting human and societal foibles. For example, the Flemish/Dutch epics were compared thematically with the Old French Roman de Renart. Twelfth century law and justice were examined in light of the legal processes in both France and Germanic Alsace, particularly in light of the rape trial against the fox. These studies illustrate an initial questioning of the sex roles depicted by the rapist fox, the cuckolded husband wolf, and the rape victim, Hersant.

In the later twentieth century from the late 1970s onward, the scholarship concentrated on specific themes in beast epics vis-a-vis fox and wolf tales such as examining the individual characters in the narratives and their meaning. As an example, the figure of the lion king in the fox and wolf epics has been highlighted as the representation of either a corrupt or weak secular leadership figure. Scholars produced in-depth studies on the relationship between fox and wolf figures and how they relate to the female wolf figure from a sexual viewpoint.

In the 1990s, critical studies of the beast epic have centered on specific thematic interpretations of the events and characters. One examination looks at the entire legal system of justice and the application of law during the Germanic Staufer regime (twelfth century Alsatian region) as depicted in the Reinhart Fuchs epic. In particular, Hersant's rape trial is dissected in light of the legal context of twelfth century Germanic Alsace. Historical legal sources are compared to the events and main characters in the trial proceedings to show how Reinhart Fuchs in particular represents a scathing satire of the system of justice in this era.

In 1997, the fox and wolf epic Reinhart Fuchs was reinterpreted using a gendered reading perspective. The issues of courtly love, marriage, family, adultery, and rape became the focal points of this study that casts a new light on how the main animal characters interact in gender roles as opposed to their roles as men and women. The way ahead for future research calls for similar gendered reinterpretations of other beast epics like Roman de Renart and its European variants in the Flemish/Dutch region and Iberia.

Primary Sources

Jauss, Hans Robert, Untersuchungen zur mittelalterlichen Tierdichtung (Examinations of Medieval Animal Narratives), (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1959).

Terry, Patricia, Renard the Fox, (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992).

Further Reading

Baesecke, Georg, "Heinrich der Glichezare," Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie, No. 52 (1927), pp. 1-22.

Best, Thomas W, Reynard the Fox, (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983).

Bloch, R. Howard, Medieval French Literature and Law, (Berkeley, Los Angeles: Univerity of California Press, 1977).

Colledge, Eric, "Introduction," Reynard the Fox and Other Medieval Netherlands' Secular Literature, (London: Sythoff Leyden/Heinemann, 1967), pp. 7-52.

Kuehnel, Irmeli, Reinhart Fuchs: A Gendered Reading (Göppingen: Kümmerle Verlag, 1997).

Robertson, Sharon Short, "Those Beastly People: a Study of Human Beings in Animal Epics," Le Roman de Renard: On the Beast Epic, Vaan den Hoven, A. and Westra, H., eds, Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies Special Issue, May, 1983, pp. 63-68.

Wehrli, Max, "Vom Sinn des mittelalterlichen Tierepos," In German Life and Letters, N. S. 10 (1956/57), pp. 219-228,

Widmaier, Sigrid, Das Recht im "Reinhart Fuchs," (Berlin: Walther de Gruyter, 1993).

The Classification of Folklore

An important step in scholarly analysis is a precise definition of terms. For folklore an appropriate classification system must be selected. According to Vladimir Propp the classification of folklore is not an easy task. He considers classification according to themes, as used by R.M. Volkov, to be a system that leads to chaos.¹ He claims that the system used by Antti Aarne, in which themes are called "types," is pragmatic, but inconsistent and unscientific. A.N. Veselovskij's definition of motif as the simplest, indivisible narrative unit of a tale, is refuted by Propp on the premise that it is not a primary element, but in fact divisible. Propp suggests that Bedier, who defined folktales as a scheme of constants, called "elements," and variables, never clearly defined these terms. The inadequacies of these classification systems are further complicated by the fact that the terminology used to define them varies significantly from one researcher to the next. Propp concludes that the problem of classification is a fundamental obstacle to the analysis of folklore. His own system of classification is based on functions, which we will discuss shortly.

What is a Folklore Motif?

There appears to be a considerable amount of disagreement on the part of literary scholars as to what actually constitutes a motif. One definition comes from Stith Thompson, whose exhaustive study of motifs, the Motif-Index of Folk Literature, has been widely used by folklorists for many decades. His approach is almost entirely pragmatic, with the goal of offering researchers a valuable tool in the comparative study of folklore. He defines motif as any element in a tale that distinguishes it from other tales. It can be an unusual creature, a strange land or a significantly striking or amusing occurrence, i.e., any of the parts into which a tale can be analyzed.² This broad definition expands even more when put into practice. Ernest Baughman, in applying Thompson's principles to the study of English and North American folklore, considered motifs to include concepts, phenomena, characteristics, powers, happenings, creatures, objects, and even short and simple stories.³ Jan Brunvand, another adherent to Thompson's methodology, has called the latter "one-motif tales."⁴

Thompson's understanding of motif certainly corresponds to a divisible element. Moreover, the position of motif in the hierarchical structure of the tale is left to the arbitrary decision of the individual folklorist. Thompson has purposely chosen a motif numbering system, remotely based upon the Library of Congress cataloging system, so that a given motif-index can be "indefinitely expanded at any time."⁵ In the course of expansion the researcher must decide what constitutes a motif, a class of motifs, or a subdivision of motifs. Baughman provides an example:

Motif E384: "Ghost summoned by music," is a whole-number motif. It has two subdivisions: E384.1, "Ghost is summoned by beating drum" and E384.2 "Ghost raised by whistling." Since the only difference between the two Motifs is the kind of music used to raise the ghost, it seems that the basic tale here is the summoning of the ghost by use of music, and it seems that the kind of music - although it is of interest - is not distinctive enough to give us two separate tales. Hence E384 is considered to be one tale. It has two English variants, one from each of its subdivisions.⁶

Here E384 is considered to be a whole-number motif, but Baughman contends that E384.1 and E384.2, its two subdivisions, are also motifs. Nevertheless he purposely selects the whole number motif as the basis for his analysis, "because of the great number of motif subdivisions."⁷

Thompson categorizes living water under the heading of "water of life," which he calls a division of motifs.⁸ The first motif in this division is E80 "resuscitation by water," followed by E82 "water of life and death, one kills, the other restores life," and E84 "the water of death." The motif subdivisions for resuscitation by water consist of:

E80.1 - Resuscitation by bathing
   E80.1.1 - Resuscitation by bathing in milk
E80.2 - Resuscitation by wet cloth over corpse
E80.3 - Resuscitation by water (in basket, overnight)
E80.4 - Resuscitation by holy water
   E80.4.1 - Resuscitation by dew from heaven.

The distinction between a division of motifs, a motif, and a subdivision of a motif appears to be arbitrary, and in some cases even ambiguous. E80.4 "resuscitation by holy water," for example, is related to D1242.1.2 "holy water as magic object," which is classified under an entirely different division of motifs:

D - Magic
D800-D1699 - Magic objects
D900-D1299 - Kinds of magic objects
D1242 - Magic fluid
   D1242.1 - Magic water (used as any type of magic agent).

D1242.1 would apparently include strong water, but this is classified differently:

D1300-D1599 - Functions of magic objects
D1300-D1379 - Magic objects effect changes in persons
D1330 - Magic object works physical change (related to D685 - transformation by magic object)
   D1335.2 - Magic strength-giving drink
      D1335.2.2 - Water as magic strength-giving drink.

The multiplicity of headings under which a particular motif can be found is often encountered with Thompson's method of classification, and has necessitated a complex structure of cross-references and even an index to the Index. What Thompson offers, therefore, is not a precise definition of motif, but a practical tool for locating actors, objects and events for the purposes of comparative folklore research. In this regard Thompson's research is extremely valuable.

Propp, rather than offer his own definition of motif, is content to refute the notion that a motif is a fundamental element. He instead proposes a new concept by which to categorize folktales - the function, which he defines as "the act of a character, defined from the point of view of its significance for the course of the action."⁹ He considers it to be a stable, constant element, independent of the character who performs it, and thus constituting a fundamental component of a tale. He asserts that there are relatively few functions (thirty-one) in comparison to motifs.

Critics argue, however, that the investigation of a motif cannot ignore semantic meaning for the sake of morphology. Anatoly Liberman criticizes his approach on the grounds that to understand the function one must understand its performer:

Propp says that only actions (the stable elements of the tale) matter for his morphological purposes, whereas the dramatis personae (the variables) do not affect the tale's structure, so all primary definitions should be made solely in terms of actions. But to know the actions are the same, we have to know who performs them! There is certainly no difference between one villain or another carrying off the bride, as long as we know that the attacker is the villain.¹⁰

Levi-Strauss disputes Propp's attempt to separate form, which has morphological meaning, from arbitrary content:

There is not something abstract on one side and something concrete on the other. Form and content are of the same nature, susceptible to the same analysis. Content draws its reality from its structure and what is called form is the "structural formation" of the local structure forming the content.¹¹

Conclusion

It would appear that the notion of motif as a fundamental element cannot be entirely abandoned, as Propp has suggested, but since the concept of motif, as used in contemporary folklore research, is ambiguous, it must be specifically defined for the particular study being conducted.

References

¹ Propp, Vladimir, Morphology of the Folktale, 2nd ed., first edition translated by Lawrence Scott with introduction by Svatava Pirkova-Jakobson, second edition revised and edited by Louis A. Wagner with introduction by Alan Dundes, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968), pp. 7-13. According to Volkov, folktales can be categorized by themes such as "about those unjustly persecuted," "about the hero-fool," and "about three brothers," comprising a total of fifteen themes. Volkov's views are contained in a Russian-language text published in the Ukraine in 1924.

² Thompson, Stith, "Motif," Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend, Marija Leach, ed., 2 vols., (New York: Funk and Wagnalls Co., 1949-50), II:753.

³ Baughman, Ernest Warren, Type and Motif-Index of the Folktales of England and North America, (The Hague: Mouton and Co., 1966) (also Indiana University Folklore Series, No. 20), p. xi.

⁴ Brunvand, Jan Harold, The Study of American Folklore, an Introduction, (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1968), p. 128.

⁵ Thompson, Stith, The Folktale, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), p. 425.

⁶ Baughman, p. xix.

⁷ Baughman, p. xi.

⁸ Thompson, Stith, Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, 5 vols., (Bloomington: Indiana University Studies, 1955-58), II:412-413.

⁹ Propp, Morphology of the Folktale, p. 21.

¹⁰ Propp, Vladimir, Theory and History of Folklore, edited, with introduction and notes by Anatoly Liberman, translated by Ariadna Martin and Richard Martin, et. al., (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), p. xxxii.

¹¹ Levi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology, vol. 2., translated by Monique Layton, (New York: Basic Books, 1976) p. 131.

Lexical Definition of Living Water

Having defined our concepts, definitions, and terminology in

What is a Folklore Motif

it is now possible to define lexically the specific motif of living water. Living water, like water labeled by other attributes, is hardly completely stable in its usage. On the contrary, it is used in a wide variety of contexts and its meaning can vary. Living water in Slavic folklore, in the words of I.L. Los',

"brings the dead back to life and gives sight to the blind. In addition it is the drink of heroic figures who, according to Afanasev (Alexander Nikolaevič Afanasev, 1826-71), intercede for the thunder-god."¹

The term appears with several attributes. Dead water (mertvaja voda), also called healing (celjaščaja) water, is sprinkled on parts of the body that have been cut or completely severed, thereby healing wounds and causing body parts to grow back together. Although the wounds at this point have been healed, the formerly severed body parts are still in a state of death. For example, legs that were cut off are now reattached but are still non-functional, and a body that was chopped into pieces is again whole but completely lifeless.² Living water, also called magic (volšebnaja) water,³ is then applied to the body to bring it or its dead members back to life. The distinction between dead water as a healing element and living water as a revitalizing element is often found in Slavic folklore, and, as will be shown, is a concept common to Eastern, Western, and South Slavs.

Strong (sil'naja) water, which at least one source equates to living water,⁴ has the ability to give great strength. It is seen in Slavic folklore in one of three oppositions: strong water versus weak (bessil'naja) water, strong water versus normal water, or water on the right versus water on the left.

Some of these terms are found in contemporary Russian vernacular speech, and in folk sayings and beliefs. The expression oprysnut' (okatit', etc.) živoj (mertvoj) vodoj means to give life to, to revive or to inspire.⁵ According to folk belief, a person who is cleansed in the rain which immediately follows the first thunder of spring will receive beauty, health and happiness.⁶

References

¹Los, I.L., "Voda živaja," Ènciklopedičeskij slovar', ed. F.A. Brokgauz and I.A. Efron, vol. 6A (St. Petersburg, 1892), p. 749. The entire article translates as follows:

"Living Water, also strong or heroic, in the folktales of all Indo-European peoples, which symbolizes spring rains, that resurrect the earth from the deathly sleep of winter. It brings the dead back to life and gives sight to the blind. In addition it is the drink of heroic figures who, according to Afanasev, intercede for the thunder-god. The distinction between dead and living water occurs only in Slavic folktales and is not repeated elsewhere. Dead water is sometimes called healing water: it heals wounds, causes the severed parts of a dead body to grow back together, but does not raise it from the dead, only the sprinkling of living water brings it back to life. According to Afanasev, dead water is the first spring rains which drive the ice and snow from the fields and seem to tie together the severed parts of the mother-earth. The rains that follow bring it greenery and flowers. Living water is found in a distinct kingdom where two mountains come together. The mountains separate for only a minute and are guarded by a serpent or ravens with iron beaks. According to folktales, living and dead water are brought by the personified forces of storms (i.e. whirlwind, thunder, or hale) or prophetic birds, in the form of ravens, sparrows, eagles and doves. A person who drinks living or heroic water immediately receives great strength. The belief in living water is tied to the folk ritual in which everyone, upon hearing the clash of the first thunder, rushes to wash themselves in water. The act was thought to bring beauty, health, and happiness."

²Evgen'ev, A.P., ed., Slovar' russkogo jazyka, 4 vols., 2nd ed., (Moscow: Russkij jazyk, 1981-1982), II:255.

³Tolkovyj slovar' živogo velikorusskogo jazyka,, ed. Vladamir Dal', (Moscow: 1882), I:538.

⁴ibid.

⁵Slovar' sovremenogo russkogo literaturnogo jazyka, (Moscow: A.N. SSSR, 1951) II:494.

⁶Ènciklopedičeskij slovar', XXI:749.

Universal or Polygenetic?

The presence of the living water motif in Slavic folklore can be deduced from different sources. Speaking entirely speculatively, it may pertain to a broad human community, or even be universal. Myths containing living water motifs are common to many cultures and may indeed point to its universality and possible polygenetic origin. The Algonquin tribe of North America believed in an earth-mother, Nokomis:

"Beneath the clouds is the Earth-Mother from whom is derived the Water of Life, who at her bosom feeds plants, animals and men."¹

A myth from the Malanesian island of Malekula in Vanuatu describes a journey to the Land of the Dead. When the voyager has proven himself by completing a labyrinth created by the dangerous guardian, he finds a great subterranean sea called the "Water of Life."² A Celtic folktale concerns an island, called the Green Isle, which is sometimes located above the water and sometimes below. Its people are immortal and skilled in magic. Its waters bring health and restore life to mortals.³

By its genesis, the living water motif could be either of one origin or polygenetic. In both instances, it could be ecologically conditioned and therefore more closely linked to linguistic and/or cultural orbits in terms of anthropological influences, unwritten and written. To investigate these orbits, two sources seem to be most relevant in our investigation of possible non-Slavic origin of the motif.

Classical Greek and Latin Tradition

The first source is classical Greek and Latin tradition which permeated Western European cultures in the Middle Ages and could have easily entered East European folklore from here. According to Ernst Curtius the Empire of Charlemagne acquired the Roman concept of a world empire, which was universal in character.⁴ In the period which followed the Germanic barbarians fell prey to the Latin church, which had "survived the universal-state end phase of antique culture," and thereby failed to make significant intellectual contributions to the new historical entity."⁵ Latin tradition continued to expand during the Latin Middle Ages, culminating during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when Latin language and learning extended to Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland and Central and Southern Europe.⁶ Thus East European folklore could have easily accepted ideas from the west during this period.

Some of these ideas could have come originally from the ancient Greeks. In the "Romance of Alexander," written by Callisthenes about 300 A.D., Alexander the Great visits the "Well of Life."⁷ The ancient Greeks envisioned an opening to the underground kingdom through every gap in the earth from which water flowed.⁸ There were two forms of water in the underground kingdom, one flowing from the left and the other from the right. A white cypress tree grows near the former, which the spirit of the dead is instructed to ignore. The water on the right is watched over by a guard, to which the spirit should exclaim, "I am overcome with thirst, give me drink!"⁹ Propp contends that the water on the right allows access to the land of the dead, whereas the water on the left enables one to return to the land of the living. He therefore links them to dead and living water. In Homer's Odyssey there stands a grove of "water-loving" willows near the cool waters which flow down form a rock.¹⁰ Hugo Rahner sees this water as the giver of life and the willows as symbols of life. On the other hand he notes the fact that the same tree also grows near graves, symbolizing mourning and death. He therefore concludes that the tree that grows from these life-giving waters is both a symbol of life and a symbol of the death to which all things must return.¹¹ In a Babylonian myth Ishtar, the embodiment of the reproductive energies of nature, descends every year to the subterranean world to rescue her dead lover, Tammuz. Allatu, the stern queen of these regions, reluctantly allows Ishtar to be sprinkled with the Water of Life, after which she returns with Tammuz to the upper world. During Ishtar's absence the plants and animals of the earth have stopped reproducing, and upon her return nature once again begins to reproduce.¹² Myths such as these could have had an influence on East European folklore via the west during the Latin middle ages.

References

¹Guirand, Felix, ed., New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, translated by Richard Aldington and Delano Ames, from Larousse Mythologie Générale, (Paris: Librarie Larousse, 1959), p. 428.

²Layard, John, "Der Mythos der Totenfahrt auf Malekula," Eranos-Jahrbuch 1 (1937) pp. 274-275.

³MacDougall, James, Folk and Hero Tales, (London: D. Nutt, 1891) p. 261.

⁴Curtius, Ernst Robert, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, translated by Willard R. Trask, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1953), p. 29.

⁵ibid., p. 5.

⁶ibid., p. 26.

⁷Cavendish, Richard, Legends of the World, (New York: Schocken Books, 1982), p. 164.

⁸Rahner, Hugo, Greek Myths and Christian Mystery, translated by Brian Battershaw, (New York: Biblio and Tanner, 1971), p. 298.

⁹Propp, Vladimir, Istoričeskie korni volšebnoj skayki, (St. Petersburg: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo gosudarstvennogo ordena Lenina universiteta, 1946), p. 179.

¹⁰Odyssey XVII.

¹¹Rahner, pp. 289-290.

¹²Frazer, James George, The Golden Bough, 11 vols., (London: Macmillan and Co., 1890-1915), V:8-9.

Biblical Origins

We examined the motif of living water in classical Greek and Latin tradition in

Greek and Latin Origins of Living Water

Another possible origin is Jewish biblical tradition. The Bible contains many references to the motif. "Living" water, i.e. fresh, running water,¹ figured prominently in Old Testament priestly literature because of its cleansing power.² In the book of Ezekiel a river of life flows from the altar of the Temple east through the desert to the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea.³

"This water flows toward the eastern region and goes down into the Arabah; and when it enters the stagnant waters of the sea, the water will become fresh. And wherever the river goes every living creature which swarms will live, and there will be very many fish; for this water goes there, that the waters of the sea may become fresh; so everything will live where the river goes... And on the banks, on both sides of the river, there will grow all kinds of trees for food. Their leaves will not wither nor their fruit fall, but they will bear fresh fruit every month, because the water for them flows from the sanctuary. Their fruit will be for food, and their leaves for healing."⁴

The motif is repeated in the New Testament in which a river of living water proceeds out of the throne of God.⁵

In Revelation it is prophesied that the Lamb will lead to the "living fountains of waters,"⁶ and God will give to everyone who thirsts "water from the fountain of the water of life."⁷ These passages are based on Old Testament prophesies in Isaiah, in which God promises to give his people springs of water,⁸ but whereas the Old Testament refers to miraculous water, the New Testament passages take water in the figurative sense. The water represents life itself, life being existence in fellowship with God.⁹

In the Gospel of John, Christ says that if a man drinks the water that he gives, it will be in him a "well of water springing up into everlasting life,"¹⁰ and if one believes in Him, out of his belly will flow "rivers of living water."¹¹ Living water is here used as a metaphor for the salvation that comes from above.¹²

Early Christian art depicts four rivers flowing from the throne of God, believed to be based upon the vision of St. John on the island of Patmos. They represent the four gospels which irrigate the earth with the Water of Life.¹³

Because the water of the Old Testament denotes water with miraculous powers, while the water of the New Testament is used metaphorically, it can be concluded that the former is a more likely source of influence on the belief in the magical properties of water. The powerful image of water in Ezekiel might easily have made an impression upon the imagination of the common man and thus influenced mythical beliefs.

References

¹Buttrick, George Arthur, ed. "Water," The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. plus supplement, (New York: Abington Press, 1962-1976), IV:806.

²Lev. 14:5-6, 50-52, 15:13.

³Ezek. 47:1-7.

⁴Ezek. 47:8-12.

⁵Rev. 22:1-2.

⁶Rev. 7:17.

⁷Rev. 21:6.

⁸Is. 49:10.

⁹Goppelt, Leonard, "Drinking Water in Revelation and John's Gospel," Theological Dictionary of the Bible, 10 vols., Gerhard Kittel et. al., eds., translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley, (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1964-1974), VIII:325-326.

¹⁰John 4:14.

¹¹John 7:38.

¹²Goppelt, VIII:327.

¹³Webber, Frederich Roth, Church Symbolism, and Explanation of the More Important Symbols of the Old and New Testament, the Primitive, the Medieval and the Modern Church, 2nd. ed., (Cleveland: J.H. Jansen, 1938), p. 191.

Slavic Origins

We examined the motif of living water in Jewish biblical tradition in

Jewish Biblical Origins of Living Water

and in classical Greek and Latin tradition in

Greek and Latin Origins of Living Water

Another possible explanation for the living water motif in Slavic folklore is that of autogenous Slavic origin, going back to the prehistoric cultural conditions of the alleged Slavic proto-home, in the East European woodlands. It could thus be mythological, influenced by the Slavs' physical environment, and based upon their observations of the powerful forces at work in nature. If such a hypothesis is correct, it could imply that the motif is of common Slavic origin, that the mythical beliefs which underlie the motif could have emerged while the Slavs were in their assumed proto-home, and that the ecological environment of the East European woodlands brought about these beliefs.

The investigation of the possible autogenous Slavic origin of the living water motif can be undertaken in three basic steps: the documentation of the common Slavic origin of the motif, the structural analysis of Eastern Slavic folktales to extract the mythical concepts associated with the motif, and an evaluation of the ecological conditions of the Slavs from which these concepts could have emerged.

Western and South Slavic

To show that the motif is of common Slavic origin it is necessary to document the occurrence of the living water motif n East, West, and South Slavic folklore. We attempt to accomplish this through an examination of folktales in a number of Slavic traditions. We therefore sample tales from Czech, Bulgarian and Croatian Kajkavian in addition to our analysis of Eastern Slavic folklore.

Although the living water motif is richly represented in the collected folktales of Afanasev, it is not limited to the folk tradition of the Eastern Slavs. On the contrary, the motif has been identified in Western Slavic and in South Slavic folktales as well. Several of Erben's Western Slavic tales explicitely mention dead and living water which, as will be shown, perform the same actions as in Eastern Slavic tales. In Tři zlaté vlasy Děda Vševěda¹ a well of living water is located in a large town. In its former state it was able to heal the sick and bring the dead back to life, but now it has been dry for twenty years. The people must kill the toad at the bottom of the well, from which the spring of living water flows, in order to bring back its revitalizing qualities.

In Zlatovláska² the king tells Jiří that he must fetch dead and living water, which have the power of life and death. Ravens bring Jiří the water in two pumpkins. He then tests the water by sprinkling it upon a spider, who quickly dies. He tests the living water on the body of a dead fly, which recovers and flies away. Subsequently the king turns against Jiří and orders his head chopped off. Jiří is sprinkled with dead water, however, causing his body and head to grow together, and with living water, which brings him back to life. Later in the tale the distinction between the actions of dead water and the actions of the living water is demonstrated by the king's attempt to test the water's powers upon himself. The headsman, having decapitated the king, fails to realize that dead water must first be applied, and instead attempts to revive the king by using all of the remaining living water, to no avail. He then sprinkles dead water upon the king and his body grows back together, but nevertheless remains completely lifeless.

In Pták Ohnivak a liška Ryška³ the sleeping prince is killed by his eldest brother with a sword. A fox, recognizing the need for dead and living water, obtains it from some ravens. The fox tests the water on a raven, which he rips apart, and then applies it to the prince, with the same effect: the dead water heals the separated body parts together and the living water brings the body back to life.

South Slavic folktales may not contain dead water expressly, i.e. with the attribute of "dead" or "of the dead," but dead water may be functionally present in terms of the action that it performs. In the Croatian Kajkavian tale Peter Breborič⁴ Peter is chopped into small pieces by his mother. His friend Nedelja puts his body parts together and sprinkles them with water, causing them to grow back together. She then touches him with a suckling pig and he stands up but is still not alive. She finally brings him back to life by touching him with an apple. Although the water is not labeled by an attribute, as in the dead water of the Western Slavic tales that we have mentioned, the action of healing broken body parts can be seen.

In another South Slavic tale, the Bulgarian tale Živa voda,⁵ a boy places in proper position the bones of a child who has been dead for three years. He then sprinkles the child with living water and he recovers. The boy is later slain with a saber and then brought back to life by living water. Here the bones that have been separated are rejoined and revived by living water in a single action. The functional presence of living water in Živa voda may indicate that the motifs of the mending of a broken body by water and of resuscitation by water are also present in South Slavic tradition.⁶

These tales may be evidence of the communality of the living water motif in Eastern, Western, and South Slavic traditions, and may therefore indicate that it is of common Slavic origin. If this is the case, it would imply that although our study uses the collected Eastern Slavic folktales of Afanasev as a data base for structural analysis, the object of examination is actually a common Slavic phenomenon.

References

¹Erben, K.J., České pohádky, (Prague: Melantrich, 1939), (=Dila Karla Jaromíra Erbena, svazek 3).

²ibid.

³ibid.

⁴Valjavec, Matija Kračmanov, Narodne pripovjesti, 2nd ed., (Zagreb: Tisak Dioničke Tiskare, 1890), pp. 111-116.

⁵Mixail Arnaudov, et. al., eds., B"lgarsko narodno tvorčestvo, 12 vols., (Sofia: B"lgarski pisatel, 1961-63), IX:388-392.

⁶The Motifs of living water in Macedonian, Serbian, Czech, Moravian, and Slovak are also mentioned in Polívka, Jiří, and Petr A. Lavrov, ed., Lidové povídky jihomakedonské z rukopisů St. Verkovičových, (Prague: Česka akademia věd a umění, 1932), (=Rozpravy Česka akademia věd a umění, 70); and Polivka, Jiří, "Neure slavische Märchensammlungen," Zeitschrift für slavische Philologie 19 (1987) 240-268.

Introduction to Structural Analysis

We examined the motif of living water in Slavic tradition in

Slavic Origins of Living Water

Now that the common Slavic origin of the motif is confirmed, the collected Eastern Slavic folktales of Afanasev will be used as a data base from which to apply the analytical methodology of Levi-Strauss. By applying his methods of structural analysis to these tales, the underlying mythical thought behind the living water motif may emerge. A complete description of structural analysis is beyond the scope of this essay, but the specific aspects which are incorporated into this investigation can be summarized in the paragraphs that follow.

Structural anthropology derived many of its concepts from linguistics. In fact, the very system of basic concepts, elements and their relations has been taken from structural linguistics. Roman Jakobson considered the phoneme to be a relational element, a purely differential and meaningless sign.¹ Just as in mathematics, where a point is defined by its relationship to other points, la langue is a system of relations whose elements are defined in differential terms with other phonemes.² Levi-Strauss uses this relational concept of phonemics as a methodological model for research in mythology. He formulates the pertinent distinctions between mythical elements and derives the rules which govern their relations.³ Just as Jakobson used phonemes to describe linguistic structure, Levi-Strauss analyzes the relationship between elements that he calls "mythemes." Mythemes consist of bundles of relations which produce meaning.⁴ He does not study the individual mythemes, but the relationships between them, and by studying the interplay of binary oppositions and transformation rules he concludes that mythemes are oppositive, relative and negative entities.⁵ A mytheme therefore exists on a higher level than a narrative element and is not tied to a particular tale. It is defined only in opposition to another mytheme.⁶

Mythical Structure

According to Levi-Strauss' methodology, determining the nature of a relation is similar to deriving the meaning of an unknown word on the basis of its syntax. To understand the meaning of the word, the word must be analyzed in as many contexts as possible. This is accomplished by examining its syntactic relation to the other parts of the sentences in which it is used. By analogy mythemes emerge from an analysis of the structural oppositions produced by the narrative elements of as many folktale variants as possible. These oppositions represent a mythical structure which transcends the apparent arbitrariness of folklore elements. The overall scheme of functions, conjunctive elements, motivations, forms of appearance of dramatis personae, and attributive elements often vary considerably between folktales and sometimes even between variants of the same tale. However, because the oppositions forming myth transcend these differences the mythical structure is preserved. Levi-Strauss therefore disputes the attempts of earlier scholars to find the "true" or "preferred" version of a particular tale. He contends that all variants should be taken into account and analyzed structurally.⁷

Next we examine a specific example of how the methods of Levi-Strauss can be applied:

Structural Analysis of the Living Water Motif in Slavic Folklore

References

¹Levi-Strauss, Claude, The View from Afar, trans. Joachim Neugroschal and Phoebe Hoss (New York: Basic Books, 1985), p. 145.

²Culler, Jonathon, Structural Poetics, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975), p. 11.

³ibid., p. 31.

⁴Levi-Strauss, Claude, Structural Anthropology, (New York: Basic Books, 1976), I:211.

⁵Levi-Strauss, The View from Afar, pp. 115, 144-145.

⁶ibid., p. 145.

⁷Levi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology,, I:217-218.